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Marine Ecology
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Marine Ecology: Processes, Systems, and Impacts offers a carefully balanced and stimulating survey of marine ecology, introducing the key processes and systems from which the marine environment is formed, and the issues and challenges which surround its future conservation.
Marine Ecology
Author : Michel J. KaiserISBN : 019924975X
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MARINE ECOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION; 1. Patterns in the Marine Environment; PROCESSES; 2. Primary Production Processes; 3. Microbial Production; SYSTEMS; 4. Estuarine Ecology; 5. Rocky and Sandy Shores; 6. Pelagic Ecosystems; 7. Continental Shelf Seabed; 8. The Deep Sea; 9. Mangrove Forests and Sea Grass Meadows; 10. Coral Reefs; 11. Polar Regions; IMPACTS; 12. Fisheries; 13. Aquaculture; 14. Disturbance, Pollution, and Climate Change; 15. Conservation; REFERENCES; APPENDIX
Aquatic Ecology
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This book on aquatic ecology discusses topics related to the maintenance and management of freshwater and marine ecosystems. All life forms that reside in these ecosystems require maintenance and well-being of their respective ecosystems. The maintenance and conservation of aquatic ecosystems is of vital importance for the ecological balance and biodiversity of earth. This book outlines the process of aquatic ecology in detail. It consists of contributions made by international experts. While understanding the long-term perspectives of the topics, the book makes an effort in highlighting their impact as a modern tool for the growth of the discipline. Researchers in the field of fisheries, marine biology and conservation management will find the topics in this book very useful. This book on aquatic ecology is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.
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Value And Economy Of Marine Resources
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Marine resources and their exploitation, recovery and economic networks they generate are here from the perspective now inevitable growing environmental constraints, policy management and technical innovation. The recent development of marine biotechnology , the discovery of a great pharmacopoeia especially in reef environments , the development of marine renewables , are examples which show that man can develop through these new technologies property and services of the ocean. But this development resources under pressure of global change requires not only taking into account technical, but also social and political. This is the price that the analysis of maritime activities will assess the sustainability and development of various economic sectors and coastal populations, faced with the objectives of a 'blue growth' associated with a return to the 'good state' of the marine environment.
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This handbook is the first of its kind to provide a clear, accessible, and comprehensive introduction to the most important scientific and management topics in marine environmental protection. Leading experts discuss the latest perspectives and best practices in the field with a particular focus on the functioning of marine ecosystems, natural processes, and anthropogenic pressures. The book familiarizes readers with the intricacies and challenges of managing coasts and oceans more sustainably, and guides them through the maze of concepts and strategies, laws and policies, and the various actors that define our ability to manage marine activities. Providing valuable thematic insights into marine management to inspire thoughtful application and further study, it is essential reading for marine environmental scientists, policy-makers, lawyers, practitioners and anyone interested in the field.
Marine Ecological Processes
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This text is aimed principally at the beginning graduate or advanced undergraduate student, but was written also to serve as a review and, more ambitiously, as a synthesis of the field. To achieve these purposes, several objectives were imposed on the writing. The first was, since ecol ogists must be the master borrowers of biology, to give the flavor of the eclectic nature of the field by providing coverage of many of the interdis ciplinary topics relevant to marine ecology. The second objective was to portray marine ecology as a discipline in the course of discovery, one in which there are very few settled issues. In many instances it is only possible to discuss diverse views and point out the need for further study. The lack of clear conclusions may be frustrating to the beginning student but nonetheless reflects the current-and necessarily exciting-state of the discipline. The third purpose is to guide the reader further into topics of specialized interest by providing sufficient recent references especially reviews. The fourth objective is to present marine ecology for what it is: a branch of ecology. Many concepts, approaches, and methods of marine ecology are inspired or derived from terrestrial and limnological antecedents. There are, in addition, instructive comparisons to be made among results obtained from marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environ ments, I have therefore incorporated the intellectual antecedents of par ticular concepts and some non-marine comparisons into the text.
Ecological Processes Handbook
Author : Luca PalmeriISBN : 9781466558489
Genre : Nature
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Ecology is a cross-disciplinary field involving many different aspects of science. Written with this in mind, this book introduces ecological processes, ranging from physical processes, to chemical processes and biological processes. It contains all the necessary information on an ecological process: a clear, detailed but not too lengthy definition; some practical examples, the main mathematical models which have been used to describe the process, and the key interconnections with other ecological processes that must be known in order to apply what has been learned from the book.
An Introduction To Marine Ecology
Author : R. S. K. BarnesISBN : 0865428344
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The subject of marine ecology has moved into an exciting phase where the emphasis in research is on processes and concepts often basic to ecology as a whole. This text covers the developments recently made in this field.
Ecological Processes At Marine Fronts
Author : Eduardo Marcelo AchaISBN : 9783319154794
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This book reviews and summarizes the results and hypotheses raised by studies directly or indirectly dealing with the ecology of fronts and aims to identify the themes that connect them to produce a synthesis of this knowledge. Though not immediately perceived the ocean is highly structured and fronts are one of the most important components of its structural complexity. Marine fronts have been known since the early 20th Century, however, the more recent availability of high resolution satellite imagery, field measurements and numerical simulations have greatly advanced our understanding of their ecological impact. This work touches on topics such as front types, its biology and its comparisons with other bounderies at sea, as well as comparisons of fronts with terrestrial boundaries and the ‘ecotone’ concept. Furthermore, it also looks at the management and conservation of marine life.
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Stage 1 (3.85–2.45 Ga): Practically no O2 in the atmosphere. The oceans were also largely anoxic with the possible exception of O2 in the shallow oceans.
Stage 2 (2.45–1.85 Ga): O2 produced, rising to values of 0.02 and 0.04 atm, but absorbed in oceans and seabed rock.
Stage 3 (1.85–0.85 Ga): O2 starts to gas out of the oceans, but is absorbed by land surfaces. No significant change in terms of oxygen level.
Stages 4 and 5 (0.85 Ga–present): Other O2 reservoirs filled; gas accumulates in atmosphere.[1]
The Great Oxygenation Event, the beginning of which is commonly known in scientific media as the Great Oxidation Event (GOE, also called the Oxygen Catastrophe, Oxygen Crisis, Oxygen Holocaust,[2]Oxygen Revolution, or Great Oxidation) was the biologically induced appearance of molecular oxygen (dioxygen, O2) in Earth's atmosphere.[3] Geological, isotopic, and chemical evidence suggests a start of around 2.45 billion years ago (2.45 Ga),[4] during the Siderian period, at the beginning of the Proterozoic eon. The causes of the event remain unclear.[5] As of 2016, the geochemical and biomarker evidence for the development of oxygenic photosynthesis before the Great Oxidation Event is inconclusive.[6]
The first microbes to produce oxygen by photosynthesis were oceanic cyanobacteria.[7] They evolved into tuftedmicrobial mats more than 2.3 billion years ago, approximately 200 million years before the GOE.[8] The free oxygen produced during this time was chemically captured by dissolved iron, converting iron and to magnetite () which is insoluble in water, and sank to the bottom of the shallow seas to create massive, large scale, banded iron formations. Some of the oxygen was captured by organic matter. The GOE started after these oxygen sinks were filled to capacity.
The increased production of oxygen set Earth's original atmosphere off balance.[9] Free oxygen is toxic to obligate anaerobic organisms; the rising concentrations may have destroyed most such organisms.[10] Newer research indicates that accumulation of oxygen in the oceans could have started long before the gas started to change the atmosphere.[11]
A spike in chromium contained in ancient rock deposits formed underwater shows accumulated chromium washed off from the continental shelves. Chromium is not easily dissolved; its release from rocks requires the presence of a powerful acid. One such acid, sulfuric acid (H2SO4), may have formed through bacterial reactions with pyrite.[12]Mats of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria can produce a thin layer, one or two millimeters thick, of oxygenated water in an otherwise anoxic environment even under thick ice; thus, before oxygen started accumulating in the atmosphere, these organisms would already have adapted to oxygen.[13] Additionally, the free oxygen would have reacted with atmospheric methane, a greenhouse gas, greatly reducing its concentration and triggering the Huronian glaciation, called 'snowball Earth', possibly the longest episode of glaciation in Earth's history.[14]
Eventually, the evolution of aerobic organisms that consumed oxygen established an equilibrium in the availability of oxygen. Free oxygen has been an important constituent of the atmosphere ever since.[14]
- 2Time lag theory
Timing[edit]
The most widely accepted chronology of the Great Oxygenation Event suggests that free oxygen was first produced by prokaryotic and then later eukaryotic organisms that carried out photosynthesis more efficiently, producing oxygen as a waste product. The first oxygen-producing organisms arose long before the GOE,[15] perhaps as early as 3,400 million years ago.[16][17]
Initially, the oxygen they produced would have quickly been removed from the atmosphere by the chemical weathering of reducing minerals, most notably iron. This dissolved iron easily oxidized and to magnetite () which is insoluble in water, and sank to the bottom of the shallow seas to create massive, large scale, banded iron formations such as the sediments in Minnesota and in Pilbara, Western Australia. Only when all of the dissolved iron, and other reducing minerals, had been oxidized, was oxygen able to persist in the atmosphere. Depleting these reductive minerals took 50 million years.[18] Oxygen could have accumulated very rapidly: at today's rates of photosynthesis, much greater than those in the Precambrian without land plants, modern atmospheric O2 levels could be produced in just 2,000 years.[19]
Another hypothesis is that oxygen producers did not evolve until a few million years before the major rise in atmospheric oxygen concentration.[20] This is based on a particular interpretation of a supposed oxygen indicator used in previous studies, the mass-independent fractionation of sulfur isotopes. This hypothesis would eliminate the need to explain a lag in time between the evolution of oxyphotosynthetic microbes and the rise in free oxygen.
In either case, oxygen did eventually accumulate in the atmosphere, with two major consequences.
Firstly, it oxidized atmospheric methane (a strong greenhouse gas) to carbon dioxide (a weaker one) and water. This decreased the greenhouse effect of the Earth's atmosphere, causing planetary cooling, and triggered the Huronian glaciation. Starting around 2.4 billion years ago, this lasted 300-400 million years, and may have been the longest ever snowball Earth episode.[20][21]
Secondly, the increased oxygen concentrations provided a new opportunity for biological diversification, as well as tremendous changes in the nature of chemical interactions between rocks, sand, clay, and other geological substrates and the Earth's air, oceans, and other surface waters. Despite the natural recycling of organic matter, life had remained energetically limited until the widespread availability of oxygen. This breakthrough in metabolic evolution greatly increased the free energy available to living organisms, with global environmental impacts. For example, mitochondria evolved after the GOE, giving organisms the energy to exploit new, more complex morphologies interacting in increasingly complex ecosystems.[22]
Time lag theory[edit]
There may have been a gap of up to 900 million years between the start of photosynthetic oxygen production and the geologically rapid increase in atmospheric oxygen about 2.5–2.4 billion years ago. Several hypotheses propose to explain this time lag.
Tectonic trigger[edit]
The oxygen increase had to await tectonically driven changes in the Earth, including the appearance of shelf seas, where reduced organic carbon could reach the sediments and be buried.[23] The newly produced oxygen was first consumed in various chemical reactions in the oceans, primarily with iron. Evidence is found in older rocks that contain massive banded iron formations apparently laid down as this iron and oxygen first combined; most present-day iron ore lies in these deposits. It was assumed oxygen released from cyanobacteria resulted in the chemical reactions that created rust, but it appears the iron formations was caused by anoxygenic phototrophic iron-oxidizing bacteria, which does not require oxygen.[24] Evidence suggests oxygen levels spiked each time smaller land masses collided to form a super-continent. Tectonic pressure thrust up mountain chains, which eroded to release nutrients into the ocean to feed photosynthetic cyanobacteria.[25]
Nickel famine[edit]
Early chemosynthetic organisms likely produced methane, an important trap for molecular oxygen, since methane readily oxidizes to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water in the presence of UV radiation. Modern methanogens require nickel as an enzyme cofactor. As the Earth's crust cooled and the supply of volcanic nickel dwindled, oxygen-producing algae began to out-perform methane producers, and the oxygen percentage of the atmosphere steadily increased.[26] From 2.7 to 2.4 billion years ago, the rate of deposition of nickel declined steadily from a level 400 times today's.[27]
Bistability[edit]
Another hypothesis posits a model of the atmosphere that exhibits bistability: two steady states of oxygen concentration. The state of stable low oxygen concentration (0.02%) experiences a high rate of methane oxidation. If some event raises oxygen levels beyond a moderate threshold, the formation of an ozone layer shields UV rays and decreases methane oxidation, raising oxygen further to a stable state of 21% or more. The Great Oxygenation Event can then be understood as a transition from the lower to the upper steady states.[28]
Hydrogen gas[edit]
Another theory credits the appearance of cyanobacteria with suppressing hydrogen gas and increasing oxygen.
Some bacteria in the early oceans could separate water into hydrogen and oxygen. Under the Sun's rays, hydrogen molecules were incorporated into organic compounds, with oxygen as a by-product. If the hydrogen-heavy compounds were buried, it would have allowed oxygen to accumulate in the atmosphere.
However, in 2001 scientists realized that the hydrogen would instead escape into space through a process called methane photolysis, in which methane releases its hydrogen in a reaction with oxygen. This could explain why the early Earth stayed warm enough to sustain oxygen-producing lifeforms.[29]
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Late evolution of oxy-photosynthesis theory[edit]
The oxygen indicator might have been misinterpreted. During the proposed lag era in the previous theory, there was a change in sediments from mass-independently fractionated (MIF) sulfur to mass-dependently fractionated (MDF) sulfur. This was assumed to show the appearance of oxygen in the atmosphere, since oxygen would have prevented the photolysis of sulfur dioxide, which causes MIF. However, the change from MIF to MDF of sulfur isotopes may instead have been caused by an increase in glacial weathering, or the homogenization of the marine sulfur pool as a result of an increased thermal gradient during the Huronian glaciation period (which in this interpretation was not caused by oxygenation).[20]
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Role in mineral diversification[edit]
The Great Oxygenation Event triggered an explosive growth in the diversity of minerals, with many elements occurring in one or more oxidized forms near the Earth's surface.[30] It is estimated that the GOE was directly responsible for more than 2,500 of the total of about 4,500 minerals found on Earth today. Most of these new minerals were formed as hydrated and oxidized forms due to dynamic mantle and crust processes.[31]
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Million years ago. Age of Earth = 4,560
Origin of eukaryotes[edit]
It has been proposed that a local rise in oxygen levels due to cyanobacterial photosynthesis in ancient microenvironments was highly toxic to the surrounding biota, and that this selective pressure drove the evolutionary transformation of an archaeal lineage into the first eukaryotes.[32]Oxidative stress involving production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) might have acted in synergy with other environmental stresses (such as ultraviolet radiation and/or desiccation) to drive selection in an early archaeal lineage towards eukaryosis. Download game onimusha 2 pc rip. This archaeal ancestor may already have had DNA repair mechanisms based on DNA pairing and recombination and possibly some kind of cell fusion mechanism.[33][34] The detrimental effects of internal ROS (produced by endosymbiont proto-mitochondria) on the archaeal genome could have promoted the evolution of meiotic sex from these humble beginnings.[33] Selective pressure for efficient DNA repair of oxidative DNA damages may have driven the evolution of eukaryotic sex involving such features as cell-cell fusions, cytoskeleton-mediated chromosome movements and emergence of the nuclear membrane.[32] Thus the evolution of eukaryotic sex and eukaryogenesis were likely inseparable processes that evolved in large part to facilitate DNA repair.[32][35] Constant pressure of endogenous ROS has been proposed to explain the ubiquitous maintenance of meiotic sex in eukaryotes.[33]
See also[edit]
- Geological history of oxygen – Timeline of the development of free oxygen in the Earth's seas and atmosphere
- Rare Earth hypothesis – Hypothesis that complex extraterrestrial life is a very improbable phenomenon and likely to be extremely rare
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References[edit]
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- ^Margulis, Lynn; Sagan, Dorion (1986). 'Chapter 6, 'The Oxygen Holocaust''. Microcosmos: Four Billion Years of Microbial Evolution. California: University of California Press. p. 99. ISBN9780520210646.
- ^Sosa Torres, Martha E.; Saucedo-Vázquez, Juan P.; Kroneck, Peter M.H. (2015). 'Chapter 1, Section 2 'The rise of dioxygen in the atmosphere''. In Peter M.H. Kroneck and Martha E. Sosa Torres (ed.). Sustaining Life on Planet Earth: Metalloenzymes Mastering Dioxygen and Other Chewy Gases. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 15. Springer. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-12415-5_1. ISBN978-3-319-12414-8. PMID25707464.
- ^Zimmer, Carl (3 October 2013). 'Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted'. The New York Times. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
- ^'University of Zurich. 'Great Oxidation Event: More oxygen through multicellularity'. ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 17 January 2013'.
- ^Planavsky, Noah J.; et al. (24 January 2014). 'Evidence for oxygenic photosynthesis half a billion years before the Great Oxidation Event'. Nature. 7 (4): 283–286. Bibcode:2014NatGe..7.283P. doi:10.1038/ngeo2122.
- ^'The Rise of Oxygen - Astrobiology Magazine'. Astrobiology Magazine. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
- ^Flannery, D. T.; R.M. Walter (2012). 'Archean tufted microbial mats and the Great Oxidation Event: new insights into an ancient problem'. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. 59 (1): 1–11. Bibcode:2012AuJES.59..1F. doi:10.1080/08120099.2011.607849.
- ^'University of Zurich. 'Great Oxidation Event: More oxygen through multicellularity.' ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 17 January 2013'.
- ^Hentges, David J. (1996), Baron, Samuel (ed.), 'Anaerobes: General Characteristics', Medical Microbiology (4th ed.), University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, ISBN978-0963117212, PMID21413255, retrieved 7 July 2018
- ^Researchers discover when and where oxygen began its rise
- ^'Evidence of Earliest Oxygen-Breathing Life on Land Discovered'. LiveScience.com. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
- ^Oxygen oasis in Antarctic lake reflects Earth in distant past
- ^ abFrei, R.; Gaucher, C.; Poulton, S. W.; Canfield, D. E. (2009). 'Fluctuations in Precambrian atmospheric oxygenation recorded by chromium isotopes'. Nature. 461 (7261): 250–253. Bibcode:2009Natur.461.250F. doi:10.1038/nature08266. PMID19741707. Lay summary.
- ^Dutkiewicz, A.; Volk, H.; George, S. C.; Ridley, J.; Buick, R. (2006). 'Biomarkers from Huronian oil-bearing fluid inclusions: an uncontaminated record of life before the Great Oxidation Event'. Geology. 34 (6): 437. Bibcode:2006Geo..34.437D. doi:10.1130/G22360.1.
- ^Caredona, Tanai (6 March 2018). 'Early Archean origin of heterodimeric Photosystem I'. Elsevier. 4 (3): e00548. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00548. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
- ^Howard, Victoria (7 March 2018). 'Photosynthesis Originated A Billion Years Earlier Than We Thought, Study Shows'. Astrobiology Magazine. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
- ^Anbar, A.; Duan, Y.; Lyons, T.; Arnold, G.; Kendall, B.; Creaser, R.; Kaufman, A.; Gordon, G.; Scott, C.; Garvin, J.; Buick, R. (2007). 'A whiff of oxygen before the great oxidation event?'. Science. 317 (5846): 1903–1906. Bibcode:2007Sci..317.1903A. doi:10.1126/science.1140325. PMID17901330.
- ^Dole, M. (1965). 'The Natural History of Oxygen'. The Journal of General Physiology. 49 (1): Suppl:Supp5–27. doi:10.1085/jgp.49.1.5. PMC2195461. PMID5859927.
- ^ abcRobert E. Kopp; Joseph L. Kirschvink; Isaac A. Hilburn; Cody Z. Nash (2005). 'The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (32): 11131–6. Bibcode:2005PNAS.10211131K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0504878102. PMC1183582. PMID16061801.
- ^First breath: Earth's billion-year struggle for oxygenNew Scientist, #2746, 5 February 2010 by Nick Lane.
- ^Sperling, Erik; Frieder, Christina; Raman, Akkur; Girguis, Peter; Levin, Lisa; Knoll, Andrew (August 2013). 'Oxygen, ecology, and the Cambrian radiation of animals'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (33): 13446–13451. Bibcode:2013PNAS.11013446S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1312778110. PMC3746845. PMID23898193.
- ^Lenton, T. M.; H. J. Schellnhuber; E. Szathmáry (2004). 'Climbing the co-evolution ladder'. Nature. 431 (7011): 913. Bibcode:2004Natur.431.913L. doi:10.1038/431913a. PMID15496901.
- ^Iron in primeval seas rusted by bacteria - Phys.org
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- ^American, Scientific. 'Breathing Easy Thanks to the Great Oxidation Event'. Scientific American. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
- ^Kurt O. Konhauser; et al. (2009). 'Oceanic nickel depletion and a methanogen famine before the Great Oxidation Event'. Nature. 458 (7239): 750–753. Bibcode:2009Natur.458.750K. doi:10.1038/nature07858. PMID19360085.
- ^Goldblatt, C.; T.M. Lenton; A.J. Watson (2006). 'The Great Oxidation at 2.4 Ga as a bistability in atmospheric oxygen due to UV shielding by ozone'(PDF). Geophysical Research Abstracts. 8: 00770.
- ^Franzen, Harald. 'New Theory Explains How Earth's Early Atmosphere Became Oxygen-Rich'. Scientific American. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
- ^Sverjensky, Dimitri A.; Lee, Namhey (1 February 2010). 'The Great Oxidation Event and Mineral Diversification'. Elements. 6 (1): 31–36. doi:10.2113/gselements.6.1.31. ISSN1811-5209.
- ^'Evolution of Minerals', Scientific American, March 2010
- ^ abcGross J, Bhattacharya D (August 2010). 'Uniting sex and eukaryote origins in an emerging oxygenic world'. Biol. Direct. 5: 53. doi:10.1186/1745-6150-5-53. PMC2933680. PMID20731852.
- ^ abcHörandl E, Speijer D (February 2018). 'How oxygen gave rise to eukaryotic sex'. Proc. Biol. Sci. 285 (1872): 20172706. doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.2706. PMC5829205. PMID29436502.
- ^Bernstein H, Bernstein C. Sexual communication in archaea, the precursor to meiosis. pp. 103-117 in Biocommunication of Archaea (Guenther Witzany, ed.) 2017. Springer International Publishing ISBN978-3-319-65535-2 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-65536-9
- ^Bernstein, H., Bernstein, C. Evolutionary origin and adaptive function of meiosis. In “Meiosis”, Intech Publ (Carol Bernstein and Harris Bernstein editors), Chapter 3: 41-75 (2013).
External links[edit]
- First breath: Earth's billion-year struggle for oxygenNew Scientist, #2746, 5 February 2010 by Nick Lane. [1]